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Few people realize how much science can tell us about the
differences between men and women. Yves Christen, provided the
first comprehensive overview of research in this area when this
classic book was first published in the1990s. He goes beyond
simplistic "biology is destiny" arguments and constructs a
convincing case for linking social and biological approaches in
order to understand complex differences in behaviour. Biologists
agree that the sexes differ in brain and body structure. Christen
links these differences in cerebral anatomy to differences in
behaviour and intellect. Taking his readers on a journey through
psychology, endocrinology, demography, and many other fields,
Christen shows that the biological and the social are not
antagonistic. To the contrary, social factors tend to exaggerate
the biological rather than neutralize it. This controversial work,
Sex Differences, takes on traditional feminism for its refusal to
confront the evidence on biologically determined sex differences.
Christen argues for a feminism that sees traits common to women in
a positive light, in the tradition of such early feminists as
Clemence Royer and Margaret Sanger, as well as more contemporary
feminist sociobiologists like Sarah Hardy. We deny sex differences
only at the price of scientific truth and our own self-respect.
This book brings together leading investigators who represent
various aspects of brain dynamics with the goal of presenting
state-of-the-art current progress and address future developments.
The individual chapters cover several fascinating facets of
contemporary neuroscience from elementary computation of neurons,
mesoscopic network oscillations, internally generated assembly
sequences in the service of cognition, large-scale neuronal
interactions within and across systems, the impact of sleep on
cognition, memory, motor-sensory integration, spatial navigation,
large-scale computation and consciousness. Each of these topics
require appropriate levels of analyses with sufficiently high
temporal and spatial resolution of neuronal activity in both local
and global networks, supplemented by models and theories to explain
how different levels of brain dynamics interact with each other and
how the failure of such interactions results in neurologic and
mental disease. While such complex questions cannot be answered
exhaustively by a dozen or so chapters, this volume offers a nice
synthesis of current thinking and work-in-progress on micro-, meso-
and macro- dynamics of the brain.
This volume starts with an elementary introduction covering stem
cell methodologies used to produce specific types of neurons,
possibilities for their therapeutic use, and warnings of technical
problems. In addition the authors report successes in achieving the
derivation of a specific type of neuron. The dopamine neuron offers
an important example and is discussed in more detail. Additional
chapters cover problems obviously approachable with cells derived
from stem cells, including their need in surgeries for pituitary
cancers. The last chapter provides an overview of this particular
field of research and presents a vision for its future directions.
Recent years have seen spectacular advances in the field of
circadian biology. These have attracted the interest of researchers
in many fields, including endocrinology, neurosciences, cancer, and
behavior. By integrating a circadian view within the fields of
endocrinology and metabolism, researchers will be able to reveal
many, yet-unsuspected aspects of how organisms cope with changes in
the environment and subsequent control of homeostasis. This field
is opening new avenues in our understanding of metabolism and
endocrinology. A panel of the most distinguished investigators in
the field gathered together to discuss the present state and the
future of the field. The editors trust that this volume will be of
use to those colleagues who will be picking up the challenge to
unravel how the circadian clock can be targeted for the future
development of specific pharmacological strategies toward a number
of pathologies.
The recent advances in Programming Somatic Cell (PSC) including
induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPS) and Induced Neuronal
phenotypes (iN), has changed our experimental landscape and opened
new possibilities. The advances in PSC have provided an important
tool for the study of human neuronal function as well as
neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases in live human
neurons in a controlled environment. For example, reprogramming
cells from patients with neurological diseases allows the study of
molecular pathways particular to specific subtypes of neurons such
as dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's Disease, Motor neurons for
Amyolateral Sclerosis or myelin for Multiple Sclerosis. Detecting
disease-specific molecular signatures in live human brain cells,
opens possibilities for early intervention therapies and new
diagnostic tools. Importantly, once the neurological neural
phenotype is detected in vitro, the so-called "disease-in-a-dish"
approach allows for the screening of drugs that can ameliorate the
disease-specific phenotype. New therapeutic drugs could either act
on generalized pathways in all patients or be patient-specific and
used in a personalized medicine approach. However, there are a
number of pressing issues that need to be addressed and resolved
before PSC technology can be extensively used for clinically
relevant modeling of neurological diseases. Among these issues are
the variability in PSC generation methods, variability between
individuals, epigenetic/genetic instability and the ability to
obtain disease-relevant subtypes of neurons . Current protocols for
differentiating PSC into specific subtypes of neurons are under
development, but more and better protocols are needed.
Understanding the molecular pathways involved in human neural
differentiation will facilitate the development of methods and
tools to enrich and monitor the generation of specific subtypes of
neurons that would be more relevant in modeling different
neurological diseases.
This volume provides the reader with a pathophysiological
perspective on the role of CNS in puberty and adolescence,
starting from genetic/molecular aspects, going through
structural/imaging changes and leading to physical/behavioral
characteristics. Therefore, renowned investigators involved in both
animal and human research shared recent data as
well as overall appraisal of
relevant questions around CNS control of puberty and
adolescence. No doubt that this volume will inspire those involved
in either scientific research or clinical practice or both in the
fascinating field of puberty and adolescence.
Traditionally, neuroscience has considered the nervous system as an
isolated entity and largely ignored influences of the social
environments in which humans and many animal species live. However,
there is mounting evidence that the social environment affects
behavior across species, from microbes to humans. This volume
brings together scholars who work with animal and human models of
social behavior to discuss the challenges and opportunities in this
interdisciplinary academic field.
In theoretical terms, sex differences in brains and behaviors of
laboratory animals offer the possibility of fascinating scientific
studies on a range of molecular phenomena such as genomic
imprinting, DNA methylation, chromatin protein modification,
non-coding DNA, potentially resulting in important neuroanatomical
and neurochemical sex differences in the brain. Such sex
differences could arise consequent to exposures to testosterone
early in development, or to other effects deriving from the Y
chromosome. However, this general subject has been treated with
much hyperbole. Historically, sex differences were assumed to be
present where they did not really exist, e.g. with respect to
mathematics, executive leadership, etc. etc. Under what
circumstances do we really care about sex differences in brain and
behavior? These circumstances concern human maladies whose
diagnoses are much different between boys and girls, or between
women and men. Prominent examples discussed in this volume include
autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorders and congenital
adrenal hyperplasia. In fact, infant boys are more susceptible than
infant girls to a variety of disorders that arise early in
development. This volume then ends with a consideration of effects
of estrogenic hormones on the injured brain, and their roles as
protective agents.
Fifteen of the foremost scientists in this field presented testable
theoretical models of consciousness and discussed how our
understanding of the role that consciousness plays in our cognitive
processes is being refined with some surprising results.
This volume starts with an elementary introduction covering stem
cell methodologies used to produce specific types of neurons,
possibilities for their therapeutic use, and warnings of technical
problems. In addition the authors report successes in achieving the
derivation of a specific type of neuron. The dopamine neuron offers
an important example and is discussed in more detail. Additional
chapters cover problems obviously approachable with cells derived
from stem cells, including their need in surgeries for pituitary
cancers. The last chapter provides an overview of this particular
field of research and presents a vision for its future directions.
This book brings together leading investigators who represent
various aspects of brain dynamics with the goal of presenting
state-of-the-art current progress and address future developments.
The individual chapters cover several fascinating facets of
contemporary neuroscience from elementary computation of neurons,
mesoscopic network oscillations, internally generated assembly
sequences in the service of cognition, large-scale neuronal
interactions within and across systems, the impact of sleep on
cognition, memory, motor-sensory integration, spatial navigation,
large-scale computation and consciousness. Each of these topics
require appropriate levels of analyses with sufficiently high
temporal and spatial resolution of neuronal activity in both local
and global networks, supplemented by models and theories to explain
how different levels of brain dynamics interact with each other and
how the failure of such interactions results in neurologic and
mental disease. While such complex questions cannot be answered
exhaustively by a dozen or so chapters, this volume offers a nice
synthesis of current thinking and work-in-progress on micro-, meso-
and macro- dynamics of the brain.
The misfolding and aggregation of specific proteins is an early and
obligatory event in many of the age-related neurodegenerative
diseases of humans. The initial cause of this pathogenic cascade
and the means whereby disease spreads through the nervous system,
remain uncertain. A recent surge of research, first instigated by
pathologic similarities between prion disease and Alzheimer's
disease, increasingly implicates the conversion of disease-specific
proteins into an aggregate-prone b-sheet-rich state as the prime
mover of the neurodegenerative process. This prion-like corruptive
protein templating or seeding now characterizes such clinically and
etiologically diverse neurological disorders as Alzheimers disease,
Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis, and frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Understanding the
misfolding, aggregation, trafficking and pathogenicity of the
affected proteins could therefore reveal universal pathomechanistic
principles for some of the most devastating and intractable human
brain disorders. It is time to accept that the prion concept is no
longer confined to prionoses but is a promising concept for the
understanding and treatment of a remarkable variety of diseases
that afflict primarily our aging society.
The health of the proteome depends upon protein quality control to
regulate the proper synthesis, folding, translocation, and
clearance of proteins. The cell is challenged constantly by
environmental and physiological stress, aging, and the chronic
expressions of disease associated misfolded proteins. Substantial
evidence supports the hypothesis that the expression of damaged
proteins initiates a cascade of molecular events that leads to
Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and other diseases of protein
conformation.
This volume provides the reader with a pathophysiological
perspective on the role of CNS in puberty and adolescence, starting
from genetic/molecular aspects, going through structural/imaging
changes and leading to physical/behavioral characteristics.
Therefore, renowned investigators involved in both animal and human
research shared recent data as well as overall appraisal of
relevant questions around CNS control of puberty and adolescence.
No doubt that this volume will inspire those involved in either
scientific research or clinical practice or both in the fascinating
field of puberty and adolescence.
Recent years have seen spectacular advances in the filed of
epigenetics. These have attracted the interest of researchers in
many fields and evidence connecting epigentic regulation to brain
functions has been accumulationg. Neurons daily convert a variety
of external stimuli into rapid or long-lasting changes in gene
expression. A variety of studies have centered on the molcular
mechanisms implicated in epigentic control and how these may operte
in concert. It will be critical to unravel how specifity is
achieved. The focus of this volume is on critical epigenetic
regulation and chromatin remodeling events that occur in the
nervous system and on the presumed mechanisms that operate within
neurons to translate them into long-lasting neuronal responses.
The authors address in particular the role of hormones and their
links with other maternal environmental mediators in developmental
programming. The crucial nature of the placenta as an interface and
target between maternal and foetal environments is addressed.
Emphasis is made on the emerging science of epigenetics as a
potential explanation for how environmental events that occur
during brief windows of development may exert effects that impact
upon somatic cells through many rounds of mitosis for much of the
life span of the subsequent organism.
Endocrine disruption is an expanding field due to the numerous
chemicals involved and, as evidenced more recently, the variety of
homeostatic systems that they can alter throughout life. Also, this
field is at the edge of several disciplines with implications of
both laboratory scientists and clinicians. This symposium aims at
updating mechanisms and consequences of endocrine disruption in
three perspectives: neural, metabolic and reproductive. The
gathering of experts from all over the world should help the
participants to identify health disorders that are possibly or
likely related to exposure to endocrine disrupters. The research
needs will be discussed as well as recommendations prioritizing
target groups and following the precautionary principle.
Homeostasis involves a delicate interplay between generative and
degenerative processes to maintain a stable internal environment.
In biological systems, equilibrium is established and controlled
through a series of negative feedback mechanisms driven by a range
of signal transduction processes. Failures in these complex
communication pathways result in instability leading to disease.
Cancer represents a state of imbalance caused by an excess of cell
proliferation. In contrast, neurodegeneration is a consequence of
excessive cell loss in the nervous system. Both of these disorders
exhort profound tolls on humanity and they have been subject to a
great deal of research designed to ameliorate this suffering. For
the most part, the topics have been viewed as distinct and rarely
do opportunities arise for transdisciplinary discussions among
experts in both fields. However, cancer and neurodegeneration
represent "yin-yang" counterpoints in the regulation of cell
growth, and it is reasonable to hypothesize that key regulatory
events mediated by oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in cancer
may also affect neurodegenerative processes
The misfolding and aggregation of specific proteins is an early and
obligatory event in many of the age-related neurodegenerative
diseases of humans. The initial cause of this pathogenic cascade
and the means whereby disease spreads through the nervous system,
remain uncertain. A recent surge of research, first instigated by
pathologic similarities between prion disease and Alzheimer s
disease, increasingly implicates the conversion of disease-specific
proteins into an aggregate-prone b-sheet-rich state as the prime
mover of the neurodegenerative process. This prion-like corruptive
protein templating or seeding now characterizes such clinically and
etiologically diverse neurological disorders as Alzheimers disease,
Parkinson s disease, Huntington s disease, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis, and frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Understanding the
misfolding, aggregation, trafficking and pathogenicity of the
affected proteins could therefore reveal universal pathomechanistic
principles for some of the most devastating and intractable human
brain disorders. It is time to accept that the prion concept is no
longer confined to prionoses but is a promising concept for the
understanding and treatment of a remarkable variety of diseases
that afflict primarily our aging society. "
The health of the proteome depends upon protein quality control to
regulate the proper synthesis, folding, translocation, and
clearance of proteins. The cell is challenged constantly by
environmental and physiological stress, aging, and the chronic
expressions of disease associated misfolded proteins. Substantial
evidence supports the hypothesis that the expression of damaged
proteins initiates a cascade of molecular events that leads to
Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and other diseases of protein
conformation.
The two greatest medical fears of the aging population are cancer
and Alzheimer's disease. Despite dramatic advances in understanding
the molecular etiology of these disorders, therapeutic options for
many patients with advanced disease have changed little and
outcomes remain dismal. Paradoxically, recent findings suggest that
some of the same molecules and biochemical processes underlying
cancer may also participate in neurodegeneration. Therefore, it
would be very useful to bring together experts from the fields of
cancer research and neurodegeneration for discussions of the latest
advances and ideas, with a particular emphasis on areas of overlap,
to stimulate transdisciplinary interactions with the hope of
accelerating progress. Cancer arises as a consequence of a
breakdown in the genetic and epigenetic processes governing cell
proliferation and cell death. Alterations in several classes of
signaling molecules, both oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes,
lead to uncontrolled cell growth. Over the past two decades,
details of the intricate signaling pathways, from cell surface
receptors through protein kinase cascades, transcription factors
and modulators of chromatin, as well as the DNA damage response
pathways linked to cell cycle control that guard the genome, have
been uncovered. In some instances, key regulatory proteins have
provided novel targets for development of small molecule inhibitors
that are currently being tested in the clinic. The development of
the nervous system relies on many of the signaling pathways and
growth control processes that go awry in cancer. However, in mature
neurons, the very same signaling proteins participate in
transduction cascades linking short-term stimuli, elicited by
synaptic stimulation, to long-term alterations in neuronal circuits
through the regulation of gene expression and chromatin structure.
These long-term adaptive modifications lead to changes in synaptic
structure and function that
Endocrine disruption is an expanding field due to the numerous
chemicals involved and, as evidenced more recently, the variety of
homeostatic systems that they can alter throughout life. The
gathering of experts from all over the world should help to
identify health disorders that are possibly or likely related to
exposure to endocrine disrupters. The research needs have been
discussed as well as recommendations prioritizing target groups and
following the precautionary principle.
The advances in human genetics that have ocurred during the past 20
years have revolutionized our knowledge of the role played by
inheritance in health and disase. It is clear that our DNA
determines not only the emergence of catastrophic single-gene
disorders, which affect millions of persons worldwide, but also
interacts with environments to predispose individuals to cancer,
allergy, hypertension, heart disease, diabetes, psychiatric
disorders and even to some infectious diseases. Overall, the study
of longevity and the demonstration of genes favouring a long
lifespan suggest that such protective systems exist. In recent
years, the study of genetic polymorphisms has made clear that some
alleles have beneficial effects. These discoveries can
substantially improve our understanding of the interactions between
genetics and the environment, between pathogenetic mechanisms and
new treatments.
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